Abstract
The earliest archaeological evidence of the presence of Persian tribes in central Fars (the basins of the Kor and Sivand rivers) dates back to the early first millennium BCE, where excavations at the Qasr-e Dasht mound provide evidence of early Persians. This presence gradually expanded, and around 550 BCE, with the defeat of the Medes by Cyrus the Great, it entered the stage of state formation. At this point, Cyrus laid the foundational structures of the Achaemenid Empire by constructing the royal complex of Pasargadae in the Sivand River basin. Subsequently, with various conquests and territorial expansions by Darius I and his successors, the Achaemenids became the largest empire of their time. Despite the grandeur of the empire, relatively few remains and archaeological traces of the Achaemenids have been identified in the central land of the empire. In fact, although the number of sites continues to grow through archaeological research, many ambiguities and deficiencies still exist both in quantity and quality, and there are numerous areas devoid of settlements or any material remains. Meanwhile, the Persepolis administrative archives and classical historians' accounts point to the prosperity, development, and establishment of various sites/facilities (about 350 locations) within the region covered by the tablets. This paper aims to provide an overall picture of Achaemenid settlement patterns in the Kor River region by utilizing archaeological studies and, to some extent, documentary texts. The archaeological evidence is categorized into various types, including rural settlements, nomadic/temporary encampments, water management structures, burial sites, grain storage facilities, roads, and mines. Based on the findings, most settlements are clustered around the royal seat of Persepolis. The integration of archaeological results with written sources allows for a reconstruction of a possible urban settlement in this area. In the northern and southern basins of the Kor River, the sites appear more scattered and isolated, with certain areas completely devoid of habitation.
Keywords: Achaemenids, Kor River Basin, Archaeological Settlements, Persepolis, Royal Sites
Introduction
There is still no consensus among researchers about when and by what route the Persians entered the Kor River region and the area of Fars. However, according to some scholars, this migration dates back to around 800 BCE (Abdi & Ataei, 2005: 41). Proponents of this theory argue that "Teimuran B pottery (grey ware), due to its significant differences from Indigenous pottery and its connection to similar ceramics in the northern regions of the plateau — which at that time were under the influence of newly arrived Iranian-speaking peoples — is likely related to the incoming Persians. Thus, the arrival of Persians in the Kor River basin dates to around 800 BCE, which roughly coincides with the period when their name began to appear gradually in written texts. The Jala-Abad pottery also indicates a later phase of Persian presence, fitting within the timeframe of the Sialk B cemetery (7th and 8th centuries BCE)" (ibid.).
Regardless of these discussions, after entering the region and mingling with the indigenous populations, the Persians gradually established political and military power during the mid-first millennium BCE. This culminated, after roughly half a century, in the formation of a vast empire named after one of their ancestors — "Achaemenes." From this great empire, a variety of archaeological remains can still be found in the studied area. This research seeks to reconstruct the settlement and habitation patterns of the region during the Achaemenid period by integrating these archaeological findings with other documents and evidence (primarily the Persepolis Fortification Tablets).
 
Discussion
Achaemenid-period remains in the Kor region can be examined in the form of mounds and sites, stone and brick structures, mines, burial structures, caves and shelters, water management systems, roads, and ritual structures. Therefore, although not all identified evidence can be classified strictly as settlements, each represents various activities in this region during the Achaemenid era. Sufficient and definitive evidence for precise chronological dating of all settlements is lacking. In several mounds in the plains and other elevated sites, the absence of Late Plain Ware (a key indicator of Achaemenid pottery in the Kor River basin) is notable. In fact, some of these sites are completely devoid of ceramic remains. It appears that the inhabitants used pottery minimally.
The morphological characteristics of most Achaemenid sites in the Kor River basin generally include small and low-elevation settlements (though this is not a fixed rule), scattered throughout the basin and mostly located within agricultural lands. However, their density and distribution are greater near the site of Persepolis, forming a compact and clustered pattern.
Persepolis and its surrounding sites are spread across a 20-kilometer area and include several settlement zones (Takhtgah, Southern Quarter, Bagh-e Firuzi, South Firuzi, Western Persepolis, Dasht-e Gowhar/Takht-e Gowhar, Naqsh-e Rustam). This area has been classified by researchers into two zones: the "Royal Zone" and the "Persepolis Settlement Area" (Askari Chaverdi & Callieri, 2012; 2013; 2014; Boucharlat et al., 2012; Gondet, 2011; Gondet & Thiessen, 2013).
The remaining evidence offers prominent architectural and environmental features that suggest the possibility of an urban settlement in this area. On the slopes of mountains surrounding the Persepolis settlement area (especially Mount Rahmat), a relatively high number of caves and shelters (around 24 cases) attributed to the Achaemenid period have been identified (Barani, 2017; 2019). The exact residential nature of these sites remains unclear. It is not possible to state definitively whether these settlements were temporary or seasonal encampments used by nomadic/pastoralist communities.
Beyond the Persepolis settlement area, other significant sites are located 20–25 kilometers away (in the northern and southern basins of the Kor River) (Tilia, 1978: 85–87; Sumner, 1986; Boucharlat, 2003: 263–265). In the southern basin (Korbāl Plain), few Achaemenid sites have been identified. In general, only a limited number of sites from this period have been recorded near Band-e Amir, the Daryoon Valley, and south of Band-e Feyzabad (Asadi & Hartnell, 2007; Asadi, 2012: 119; Hartnell, 2012: 121). Additional sites include several between the village of Dezhabad and Band-e Amir (Ataei & Zare, 2019), as well as three other sites at the far end of the basin (Miri, 2017). Their functional characteristics include aristocratic/royal sites, water structures, and rural settlements. In the northern half of the basin (regions of Beyza, Ramjerd, and Abraj), few sites have been reported. The hilly sites located in the plain are distinguished by their low density and relatively large distances from each other — the defining feature of Achaemenid settlement patterns in this region.
 
Conclusion
The Kor River basin, located in the northwestern part of Fars Province, is considered one of the principal areas within the central heartland of the Achaemenid Empire. However, numerous ambiguities and questions still remain regarding the nature and extent of settlement in this region during the Achaemenid period — questions that future, more extensive research may help answer.
Among the main ambiguities are the low number of settlements and the lack of definitive archaeological evidence related to urban centers. Aside from the area designated as the Persepolis Settlement Zone (stretching from the ceremonial platform to Naqsh-e Rustam), there is a low density of archaeological remains and evidence in other parts of the region. Nevertheless, it is expected that this gap may be partially filled through archaeological investigations, especially in the northern half of the basin.
Despite the scarcity of archaeological evidence, written sources (including the Persepolis Fortification Tablets and classical historical accounts) emphasize the abundance of Achaemenid remains and material culture in this region. This suggests that a significant portion of the archaeological data related to the Persian presence in the area may have been lost over time, leaving only limited traces today. The remaining evidence includes small and low-rise settlements, aristocratic/royal residencies, water infrastructure, mines, roads, royal tombs and cemeteries, and ritual structures. Furthermore, the integration of documentary sources with archaeological data supports the idea of an urban settlement existing in the Kor region during the Achaemenid era.