References
Adam, Jean-Pierre. La Construction Romaine: Matériaux et Techniques. Paris: Picard, 1984.
Adkins, Lesley. The Roman Temples of Lebanon: A Pictorial Guide. Beirut: Librairie du Liban, 1971.
Ahmad, Tarek. Il complesso monumentale di Baitokaike (Hoson Sulaiman – Siria). Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 34. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2018.
Aharoni, Yohanan. "Arad: Its Inscriptions and Temple." The Biblical Archaeologist 31, no. 1 (1968): 2-32.
Albright, William Foxwell. The Archaeology of Palestine and the Bible. New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1932.
Aliquot, Julien. La Vie religieuse au Liban sous l'Empire romain. Beirut: Presses de l'Institut français du Proche-Orient, 2009.
Appian. "Syrian Wars." In Roman History. Translated by Horace White. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1913.
Awad, John. Baalbek in History. 7th ed. Baalbek, Lebanon, 1966.
Baroody, Sam. "The Bacchus Temple at Baalbek: Defining Temple Function and the Language of Syncretism." In Proceedings of the Sapiens Ubique Civis Conference. University of Szeged, Hungary, August 2013.
Bikai, Patricia Maynor. "Cyprus and the Phoenicians." The Biblical Archaeologist 52, no. 4 (1989): 203-212.
Boëthius, Axel, and J. B. Ward-Perkins. Etruscan and Roman Architecture. The Pelican History of Art. Harmondsworth, United Kingdom: Penguin Books, 1970.
Borg, Barbara E., ed. A Companion to Roman Art. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Translated by John Raffan. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1985.
Burns, Ross. Monuments of Syria: An Historical Guide. Rev. ed. London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 1999.
Butcher, Kevin. "Continuity and Change in Lebanese Temples." In Creating Ethnicities and Identities in the Roman World, edited by David J. Mattingly. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies Supplement 120. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Butcher, Kevin. Roman Syria and the Near East. London: British Museum Press, 2003.
Caesar, Julius. The Civil War: Together with the Alexandrian War, the African War, and the Spanish War by Other Hands. Translated by Jane F. Gardner. London: Penguin Classics, 1967.
Cassuto, U. "Baal and Mot in the Ugaritic Texts." Israel Exploration Journal 12, no. 2 (1962): 77-86.
Chrétien-Happe, Isabelle. "Les représentations de temples et sanctuaires sur les monnaies romaines de Décapole et d'Arabie." Syria 81 (2004): 131-146.
Clifford, Richard J. "Phoenician Religion." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 279 (August 1990): 55-64.
Cohen, Getzel M. The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
Cohen, Getzel M. The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and the Arabian Peninsula. Hellenistic Culture and Society 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
Colburn, Henry P. "Palmyra and the Problem of Parthian Art." In Palmyra in Perspective, edited by Rubina Raja. Studies in Palmyrene Archaeology and History 11. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2024.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Art of Palmyra. Studies in Ancient Art and Archaeology. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976.
Collart, Paul. "Reconstruction du Thalamos du Temple de Baalshamîn à Palmyre." Revue Archéologique, n.s., no. 2 (1970): 323-327.
Curle, Richard. "Baalbek: Splendid in Its Ruin." In Wonders of the Past, edited by J.A. Hammerton, vol. 1. London: Amalgamated Press, 1937.
DeLaine, Janet. Roman Architecture. Oxford History of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2024.
Delvoye, Charles. "Études d'archéologie classique. II." L'Antiquité Classique 29, no. 1 (1960): 298-300.
Diebner, Bernd. "Die Orientierung des Jerusalemer Tempels und die 'Sacred Direction' der frühchristlichen Kirchen." Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 87, no. 2 (1971): 153-166.
Dinsmoor, William Bell. The Architecture of Ancient Greece: An Account of Its Historic Development. 3rd ed. London: B.T. Batsford, 1950.
Dinsmoor, William Bell. The Architecture of Ancient Greece: An Account of Its Historic Development. Reprint of the 1950 3rd edition revised. London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1975.
Dirven, Lucinda. "The Problem with Parthian Art at Dura." In Religion, Society and Culture at Dura-Europos, edited by Ted Kaizer, 68–88. Yale Classical Studies 38. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Drijvers, Hendrik Jan Willem. The Religion of Palmyra. Iconography of Religions, Section XV: Mesopotamia and the Near East. Leiden: Brill, 1976.
Edwell, Peter M. Between Rome and Persia: The Middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman Control. London: Routledge, 2019.
Elsner, Jaś. The Art of the Roman Empire: AD 100-450. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
Fowlkes-Childs, Blair, and Michael Seymour. The World between Empires: Art and Identity in the Ancient Middle East. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2019.
Frayne, Douglas R., Johanna H. Stuckey, and Stéphane D. Beaulieu. A Handbook of Gods and Goddesses of the Ancient Near East. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021.
Freyberger, Klaus S. Die frühkaiserzeitlichen Heiligtümer der Karawanenstationen im hellenisierten Osten. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1998.
Gawlikowski, Michał. Le sanctuaire d'Allat à Palmyre. PAM Monograph Series 8. Warsaw: Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw, 2021.
Gawlikowski, M., and M. Pietrzykowski. "Les sculptures du temple de Baalshamîn à Palmyre." Syria 57, no. 2/4 (1980): 421-452.
Gibson, J. C. L. "The Theology of the Ugaritic Baal Cycle." Orientalia, nova series 53, no. 2 (1984): 202-219.
Gooding, D. W. "Temple Specifications: A Dispute in Logical Arrangement between the MT and the LXX." Vetus Testamentum 17, no. 2 (April 1967): 143-172.
Grainger, John D. Syrian Influences in the Roman Empire to AD 300. London: Routledge, 2018.
Hajjar, Joseph N., and Youssef Hajjar. La Triade d'Héliopolis-Baalbek. Vol. 1. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 1977.
Hajjar, Youssef. La triade d'Héliopolis-Baalbek I: Son culte et sa diffusion. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire. Leiden: Brill, 1977.
Harding, Gerald Lankester. Baalbek. 1st ed. Beirut: Khayats, 1961.
Heskin, Kieran. "Signs and Symbols of Sacred Reality in Old Testament Religion." New Blackfriars 77, no. 900 (January 1996): 17-27.
Hollinshead, Mary B. "Adyton, Opisthodomos, and the Inner Room of the Greek Temple." Hesperia 68, no. 2 (1999): 189-218.
Hollinshead, Mary B. "Against Iphigeneia's Adyton in Three Mainland Temples." American Journal of Archaeology 89, no. 3 (1985): 419-440.
Homer. The Iliad. Translated by A.T. Murray. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, 1924.
Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo. In Homeric Hymns, edited and translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, 1914.
Hundley, Michael B. Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013.
Inchbold, A. C. Under the Syrian Sun. Volume One. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2004.
Inchbold, A. C. Under the Syrian Sun: The Lebanon, Baalbek, Galilee, and Beyond. Vol. I–II. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2004.
Intagliata, Emanuele Ettore. Palmyra after Zenobia AD 273–750: An Archaeological and Historical Reappraisal. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2018.
Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Translated by William Whiston. London, 1737.
Josephus, Flavius. Jewish Antiquities. Vol. 8. Translated by Ralph Marcus. Loeb Classical Library 410. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1943.
Kahwagi-Janho, Hany. "Le temple ionique de Bziza: architecture et transformations." Syria 97 (2020): 269-296.
Kaizer, Ted. "Reflections on the Dedication of the Temple of Bel at Palmyra in AD 32." In The Impact of Imperial Rome on Religions, Ritual and Religious Life in the Roman Empire: Proceedings from the Fifth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, 200 B.C.–A.D. 476) Münster, June 30 – July 4, 2004, edited by Lukas de Blois, Peter Funke, and Johannes Hahn. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
Kleiner, Fred S. A History of Roman Art. Enhanced ed. Boston: Wadsworth Publishing, 2010.
Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Vol. 1. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2017.
Koldewey, Robert, and Otto Puchstein. Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien. Berlin: A. Asher & Company, 1899.
Koldewey, Robert, and Otto Puchstein. Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien. Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1899.
Krencker, Daniel. Die Tempel von Baalbek. Erster Band: Der Jupiter-Tempel. Berlin: Reimer, 1921.
Krencker, Daniel, and Willy Zschietzschmann. Römische Tempel in Syrien. Vol. 1. Berlin and Leipzig: W. de Gruyter, 1938.
Krencker, Daniel, and Willy Zschietzschmann. Römische Tempel in Syrien: nach Aufnahmen und Untersuchungen von Mitgliedern der Deutschen Baalbekexpedition 1901–1904 und eigenen Aufnahmen 1933. Vol. 2. Berlin and Leipzig: W. de Gruyter, 1938.
Kropp, Andreas J. M. "Jupiter, Venus and Mercury of Heliopolis (Baalbek): The Images of the 'Triad' and Its Alleged Syncretisms." Syria 87 (2010): 229-264.
Livy. History of Rome. Translated by Evan T. Sage. Loeb Classical Library, vol. 9. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935.
Lohmann, Daniel. "Drafting and Designing: Roman Architectural Drawings and their Meaning for the Construction of Heliopolis/Baalbek, Lebanon." In Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Construction History. Cottbus: Brandenburg University of Technology, 2009.
Loti, Pierre. The Holy Land: Travels Through Galilee to Damascus and Baalbek. Translated by G. Rex Smith and Jonathan M. G. Smith. Berlin: Gerlach Press, 2022.
Macrobius. The Saturnalia. Translated by Percival Vaughan Davies. Records of Western Civilization. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.
Marconi, Clemente, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Art and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
Mazarakis Ainian, Alexander. "Inside the Adyton of a Greek Temple: Excavations on Kythnos (Cyclades)." In Architecture and Archaeology in the Cyclades, edited by Marina Yeroulanou and Maria Stamatopoulou. Oxford: BAR British Archaeological Reports, 2011.
Mazarakis Ainian, Alexandros. "Inside the Adyton of a Greek temple: Excavations on Kythnos (Cyclades)." In Architecture and Archaeology in the Cyclades, edited by Marina Yeroulanou and Maria Stamatopoulou. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2005.
Mazzilli, Francesca. Rural Cult Centres in the Hauran: Part of the Broader Network of the Near East (100 BCE–300 CE). Archaeopress Roman Archaeology 51. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2019.
Miles, Margaret M. "Interior Staircases in Western Greek Temples." Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 43/44 (1998/1999): 1-26.
Millar, Fergus. Rome, the Greek World, and the East. Volume 3: The Greek World, the Jews, and the East. Edited by Hannah M. Cotton and Guy M. Rogers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
Mourtada, Rim. "The Symbolic Dimension of the Urban and Cultural Landscape in Baalbek (Lebanon): The Challenge of Resistance and/or Instruments of Power." dearq, no. 24 (2019): 48-59.
Negev, Avraham. "The Temple of Obodas: Excavations at Oboda in July 1989." Israel Exploration Journal 41, no. 1/3 (1991): 62-80.
Newson, Paul. "Memory, Place, and Landscape in Roman Syria: The View from the Sanctuaries of Mount Lebanon." Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 62, no. 1 (2019): 111-130.
Nilsson, Martin Persson. Geschichte der griechischen Religion. München: C.H. Beck, 1961.
Nilsson, Martin P. Geschichte der griechischen Religion. Band 1–2. München: C.H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1955.
Ouellette, Jean. "The Solomonic Debîr According to the Hebrew Text of I Kings 6." Journal of Biblical Literature 89, no. 3 (1970): 338-343.
Paton, Lewis Bayles. "Jerusalem in Bible Times: VII. Solomon's Buildings." The Biblical World 30, no. 1 (July 1907): 3-15.
Paturel, Simone Eid. Baalbek-Heliopolis, the Bekaa, and Berytus from 100 BCE to 400 CE. Leiden: Brill, 2019.
Pliny the Elder. Natural History. Translated by H. Rackham. Loeb Classical Library 353. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1942.
Polybius. The Histories. Translated by W. R. Paton. Loeb Classical Library, vol. 4. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925.
Ptolemy. Geography. Translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson. New York: Dover Publications, 1991.
Puchstein, Otto. "Die Säulenbasen von Baalbek." Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 19 (1904): 91-105.
Ragette, Friedrich. Baalbek. Park Ridge, N.J.: Chatto and Windus, 1980.
Raja, Rubina, ed. Palmyra in Perspective. Studies in Palmyrene Archaeology and History 11. Turnhout: Brepols, 2024.
Raja, Rubina. Pearl of the Desert: A History of Palmyra. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.
Renan, Ernest. Mission de Phénicie. Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1864.
Rheidt, Klaus, and Margarete van Ess, eds. Baalbek - Heliopolis - 10.000 Jahre Stadtgeschichte. Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie, Sonderbände der Antiken. Darmstadt: WBG (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft), 2014.
Robertson, D. S. A Handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929.
Sapirstein, Philip, and David Scahill. New Directions and Paradigms: Architecture and Archaeology in the Ancient Mediterranean. Leiden: Brill, 2020.
Schniedewind, William M., and Joel H. Hunt. A Primer on Ugaritic: Language, Culture, and Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Schult, Hermann. "Der Debir im salomonischen Tempel." Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 80, no. 1 (1964): 45-54.
Schulz, Bruno, and Hermann Winnefeld. Baalbek: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898 bis 1905, unter Mitwirkung von Otto Puchstein, Daniel Krencker, Heinrich Kohl, und Gottlieb Schumacher. 1st vol. Berlin and Leipzig: Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1921.
Scotton, Paul D. "Roman Architecture at Hierapolis: The Importance of Temple A." Journal of Roman Archaeology 34 (2021): 902-914.
Sear, Frank. Roman Architecture. 2nd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2021.
Sear, Frank. Roman Architecture. Rev. ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989.
Segal, Arthur. Temples and Sanctuaries in the Roman East: Religious Architecture in Syria, Iudaea/Palaestina and Provincia Arabia. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2013.
Segal, Arthur. Temples and Sanctuaries in the Roman East: Religious Architecture in Syria, Iudaea/Palaestina and Provincia Arabia. Munich: Philipp von Zabern, 2013.
Servius. In Vergilii Aeneidem Commentarii. Edited by Georg Thilo and Hermann Hagen. Leipzig: Teubner, 1881–1902.
Seyrig, Henri. Le temple de Bêl à Palmyre. Paris: Geuthner, 1975.
Seyrig, Henri. "La Triade Héliopolitaine et les Temples de Baalbek." Syria 10, no. 4 (1929): 314-356.
Sommer, Michael. Palmyra: A History. Cities of the Ancient World. London and New York: Routledge, 2018.
Steiner, Richard C. "On the Rise and Fall of Canaanite Religion at Baalbek: A Tale of Five Toponyms." Journal of Biblical Literature 128, no. 3 (2009): 507-525.
Strabo. Geography. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. Loeb Classical Library 241. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1932.
Teixidor, Javier. The Pantheon of Palmyra. Études Préliminaires aux Religions Orientales dans l'Empire Romain 79. Leiden: Brill, 1979.
Thalmann, Susan K. "The Adyton in the Greek Temples of South Italy and Sicily." PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1976.
Ulpian. De Censibus. In The Digest of Justinian, edited by Alan Watson, vol. 4. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985.
Ulrich, Roger B., and Caroline K. Quenemoen, eds. A Companion to Roman Architecture. 1st ed. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
Ustinova, Yulia. Caves and the Ancient Greek Mind: Descending Underground in the Search for Ultimate Truth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Van Seters, John. "Solomon's Temple: Fact and Ideology in Biblical and Near Eastern Historiography." The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 59, no. 1 (January 1997): 45-57.
Ward-Perkins, John Bryan. Roman Imperial Architecture. The Yale University Press Pelican History of Art Series. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981.
Waterman, Leroy. "The Damaged 'Blueprints' of the Temple of Solomon." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 2, no. 4 (1943): 284-294.
Watkins, Ruth Nagle. "Baalbek, Ancient Heliopolis, City of the Sun." Art Journal 24, no. 2 (Winter 1964–1965): 130-133.
Wheeler, Mortimer. Roman Art and Architecture. London: Thames & Hudson, 1964.
Wiegand, Theodor, ed. Baalbek: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898-1905. 3 vols. Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1921-1925.
Wienholz, Holger. "The Relative Chronology of the Roman Buildings in Baalbek in View of Their Architectural Decoration." In Baalbek / Heliopolis: Results of Archaeological and Architectural Research 2002–2005, edited by Margarete van Ess. Beirut: BAAL, 2006.
Wienholz, Holger. "War Baalbek/Heliopolis im 1. Jh. v. Chr. ein römischer Stützpunkt?" In Militärsiedlungen und Territorialherrschaft in der Antike, edited by Frank Daubner. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010.
Will, Ernest. "L'Adyton dans le temple syrien de l'époque impériale." In Études d'archéologie classique II, Annales de l'Est, mémoire no. 22, 136–145. Nancy: Université de Nancy, 1959.
Wilson Jones, Mark. Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
Wright, Nicholas L. "Ituraean Coinage in Context." The Numismatic Chronicle 173 (2013): 55-71.
Yegül, Fikret K., and Diane Favro. Roman Architecture and Urbanism: From the Origins to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
Online Image References:
Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford. "RPC I 4579." Roman Provincial Coinage Online. Accessed April 28, 2025. https://rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/coins/1/4579.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Geographical location of Baalbek in the Eastern Mediterranean." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/place/Baalbeck.
JSTOR. "Adyton in Temple A at Niha." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13923649.
JSTOR. "Architectural Plan of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13919798.
JSTOR. "Bassae: Temple of Apollo Epikourios, Plan." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13919740.
JSTOR. "Capitals at the Northeastern Corner of the Cella of the Temple of Bacchus." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8720615.
JSTOR. "Image of the Great Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek, ca. 1890." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.39147099.
JSTOR. "Plan of the Temple of Bel, Palmyra." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13913164.
JSTOR. "Temple of Apollo, Didyma; Reconstructed Plan of Colonnaded Adyton." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.12188131.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, Birth of Bacchus Relief, Adyton (Detail View)." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8722519.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, Exterior View from the Northeast." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8722800.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, Interior; Partial View of Adyton." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.14911630.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, View from Northwest, Exterior." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8758563.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, View from the North." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8739876.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, View of Relief on Adyton Stair." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8739064.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bacchus, View Toward Adyton, Interior." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.8719850.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bel, Palmyra; General View from the Southeast." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13922342.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bel, Palmyra; Northern Adyton." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13920978.
JSTOR. "Temple of Bel, Palmyra; Southern Adyton." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.13916374.
JSTOR. "The Peristyle Columns Enclosing the Cella of the Temple of Bacchus." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/community.14929013.
My Lebanon Guide. "Adyton in Temple A at Niha, Lebanon." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://mylebanonguide.com/place/niha-temple.
Roberts, David. Portico of the Temple of Bacchus, Baalbec. 1839. Watercolour. National Museums Liverpool. https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/artifact/portico-of-temple-of-bacchus-baalbec.
Wikiwand. "Qasr el-Banat, Lebanon." Accessed April 28, 2025. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/Qasr_el_Banat,_Lebanon.
